Takshila University-India's Intellectual Talent tapper

Intellectual Growth of India

Oh India! The land which was spread through many rivers, forests, snow-capped mountain ranges, deserts, and also one of the most fertile lands in the ancient World.

• Well, where do I start?
• I believe we had a short discussion on Mahajanapadas, how the mighty Sindhu civilization which majorly constituted of Aryans now moved east and founded vast empires ranging from Bengal and Gangariday(Bangladesh) and Bihar(Magadha) in the east to the arid Rajasthan, Sind and straight to the khyber pass leading to Persia.
• Mahajanapadas is a combination of three words

1. Maha-Great
2. Jana-People
3. Padas-Foothold

• So Mahajanapadas wer Great footholds of people of various tribes.
• This was also the time when the name BHARAT-VARSH was coined for the whole indian subcontinent.
• This vast land of roughly 3000 kms was split into 16 major mahajanapadas around the 6th century B.C.E and, they were divided into two categories as follows:

Monarchy:

• 11 of theese majanapadas were ruled by kings or monarchs. The kings in these states had the supreme authority.
• 1. Anga (Kolkata and Bangladesh)
  2. Kashi (Varanasi/Benaras)
  3. Kosala, (East Uttar Pradesh)
  4. Chedi, (Central Madhya Pradesh)
  5. Vatsa, (southern Uttar Pradesh)
  6. Matsya, (Eastern Rajasthan and Western Madhya Pradesh)
  7. Shursen, (Indian Punjab)
  8. Ashmak, (Central India-Eastern Maharashtra)
  9. Avanti, (Western and southern Madhya Pradesh)
  10. Gandhar (Peshawar and northern Pakistan Punjab )
  11. Magadha (Bihar and Bengal)

Republics:

• The remaining 5 were Republic countries.
• These republican states had a 'Gana-parishad' or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. This, Gana-parishad had the supreme authority in the state. 
• All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad.were taken by this Parishad.

1. Vrijji (North Eastern Uttar Pradesh)
2. Malla,( Northern West Bengal and Western Assam)
3. Kuru(Haryana and Delhi)
4. Panchal (Uttarakhand and Western Uttar Pradesh)
5. Kamboj (Nothern Baluchistan and North West Frontier Province of Pakistan)

Of all these, Avanti,Kosala,Gandhar,Vatsa and Magadha were the biggest and their role was very important all the forth comings.

India divided into various small fragmented empires 

Kosala:

• Shravasti,Kushavati, Saket, and Ayodhya were the famous cities of Kosala. 
• Ayodhya was the State capital. 
• The Kosala king Prasenajit was - a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Kosala and Magadha went to war during his reign. 
• The independent state of Kosala did not last -long after Prasenajit.

Vatsa: 

• Kaushambi of the present day Bihar, was the capital of Vatsa. 
• Vatsa was famous for its fine cotton cloth.
•  The Vatsa king Udayana was very brave. 
• He was the follower of Gautama Buddha. 
• The independent status of- Vatsa was soon lost after king Udayana.

Avanti:

• The kingdom of Avanti comprised the area around the present day Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. 
• Pradyota, the king of Avanti, was a very ambitloys ruler.
•  He was constantly engaged in conflicts with Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. 
• In this constant warfare, the Magadha state ultimately proved superior.

Magadha:

•  Expansion of the Magadha kingdom started during the reign of King Bimbisara.
•  He annexed the kingdoms of Kashi, Madra and Anga to Magadha. 
• There is a reference in the Buddhist works to 80,000 village in Bimbisara's kingdom. 
• The capital of his kingdom was Rajagriha, the present day Rajgir in Bihar. The city of Rajagriha and King Bimbisara's palace were built by an architect named Mahagovinda.

Nation Building:

What is it that builds a nation?

Definitely its people who work for themselves and the nation ultimately benefiting both through trade, politics, commerce and agriculture in those times.

• Scholars were always revered and placed in the highest regard in all the states across India
• Intellect and Arts were appreciated beyond praises and accolades as they(artisans and intellectuals ) were always kept closer to the King who helped him in crisis as well as decision taking moments by being advisors and sometimes also acting as the judge to deliver judgements.
• I always ask the question to myself what is common among all the people who are in power? What are the factors that make them stand out amongst all the others? What knowledge and what strengths do they possess to have acquired such a position in the ruling of an empire?
• MOST IMPORTANTLY where have they acquired this knowledge?
• The answer to all the above questions have a common link- THE UNIVERSITIES!
• Take any Prime Minister or any PRESIDENT and you shall observe that all of them have graduated from the best universities and colleges in the world at their time and that the contacts that they develop at such places also occupy places of power more often than not.

INDIA-The land of the golden sparrow

• They say that India was the leader of the World in the early years in knowledge, wealth and prosperity.
• There were many scholars who made stupendous advancements in the fields of Maths, Science, Medicine, Politics, Language, Arts(Sculpting and Painting) with such finesse and foresight that most of their works have stood the test of time even after millenniums have passed by.
• India too built its name in the world through centres of knowledge in the latter half of the Aryan Civilization.
• There were two major unviersities at that time known as Nalanda(Presently in Bihar) and Takshila (Rawalpindi/Punjab Province, Pakistan).
• Great thinkers and Analysts like Chanakya also known as Kautilya was a student as well as a techer in these universities along with the other students,nobles and kings.
• People even today look to Chanakya for political advice through the book he wrote known as "ArthaShastra(The treatise on Economics,Politics and Military Strategy)."
• Chanakya was the brain behind the resistance to Alexander the Great's advent of India.

I shall talk  more about the Universities and then shall proceed towards the conquests of Alexander the Great!

Takshila University:

The supposed 800-700 B.C.E period Top View of Takshashila University

• Takshila (Pronounced as Takshashila in Sanskrit) is located in the Rawalpindi District of the Punjab province in Pakistan. 
• Legend has it that Taksha, an ancient king who ruled a kingdom called Taksha Khanda the
• modern (Tashkent) founded the city of Takṣaśilā.However Sanskrit Takshashila, appears to contain the suffix shila ("stone") with the prefix Taksha, referring to Taksha, the son of Bharata and Mandavi, as related in the Ramayana.
• Takshila is situated about 30-32 km  northwest of Islamabad Capital Territory and Rawalpindi in the Punjab state which is just off the Grand Trunk Road. 
• Takshila was a part of India before the partition, After which it went into Pakistan's Territory.
• Takshashila University was established sometime around the 8th Century B.C.E in the Gandhar Mahajanapada.

Sir Alexander Cunningham-Ancient Geography of India

• The city dates back to the Gandhara period and contains the ruins of the Gandharan city of Takshashila which was an important Hindu and Buddhist centre, and is still considered a place of religious and historical sanctity in those traditions.
•  In 1980, Takshila was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site with multiple locations.
• By some accounts, Takshila was considered to be amongst the earliest universities in the world and some Historians even suggest that it was the first University in the world making it the oldest university in the world.

I shall be resorting to the works of D.G.Apte's book- Universities in Ancient India for further details as well.

Dharmarajika Stupa at Takshashila University

COURSE AND CURRICULUM:

• At ancient Takshashila University,more than 10,500 students (two out of three applicants rejected) came from within India and outside (Babylonia-now Iraq, Greece, Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor-now Turkey, Arabia, and China), to be taught by nearly 2000 master-teachers. 
• The curriculum consisted of some 68 elective courses.
• Students from Magadha traveled the vast distances of northern India in order to join the schools and colleges of Takshashila.
• We learn from Pali(Language in Buddha's time) texts that Brahmana youths, Khattiya(A member of one of the clans or tribes recognized as of Aryan descent) princes and sons of setthis(Merchant Bosses and Traders) from Rajagriha, Kashi, Kosala and other places went to Takshashila for learning the Vedas and eighteen sciences and arts.

Various areas of Takshashila University including the temple wall and the area around Dharmarajika Stupa 

• Courses included philosophy, law, state-craft, defense, warfare strategies, grammar (several languages).
• The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts (music, dance, fine arts,  archery, hunting, and elephant lore, Divination, Magic, Snake Charming, Painting etc.), mathematics, astronomy, astrology, plants & herbs
• Medicine (Ayurveda, Ayurvedic acupuncture, etc.), and surgery. 
• Some of these, such as medicine, were taught for up to seven years before graduation.
• Takshila was specialized in the study of medicine.
• Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. 
• Students would come to Takshila and take up education in their chosen subject with their teacher directly.
• They were supposed to pay for their expenses. However, if a student was unable to pay then he could work for his teacher.

Stupa base at Sirkap, decorated with Hindu, Buddhist and Greek temple fronts in Takshashila-courtesy takshila.org.pk

AUTONOMOUS UNIVERSITY!

• No external authorities like kings or local leaders subjected the scholastic activities at Takshashila to their control. 
• Each teacher formed his own institution, enjoying complete autonomy in work, teaching as many students as he liked and teaching subjects he liked without confirming to any specific centralized syllabus.
•  Study terminated when the teacher was satisfied with the student's level of achievement. 
• In most cases the "schools" were located within the teachers' private houses, and at times students were advised to quit their studies if they were unable to fit into the social, intellectual and moral atmosphere there.
• The teachers were exempted from the payment of taxes and they were given ample amounts of money on the the occasion of various sacrifices and rituals as well.

 

A pool for ritual washings at Jaulian...Part of Takshashila

                           

• Knowledge was considered too sacred to be bartered for money, and hence any stipulation that fees ought to be paid was vigorously condemned. 
• Financial support came from the society at large, as well as from rich merchants and wealthy parents. 
• Though the number of students studying under a single Guru sometimes numbered in the hundreds, teachers did not deny education even if the student was poor; free boarding and lodging was provided, and students had to do manual work in the household.
•  Paying students like princes were taught during the day; non-paying ones, at night.
• Guru Dakshina was usually expected at the completion of a student's studies, but it was essentially a mere token of respect and gratitude - many times being nothing more than a turban, a pair of sandals, or an umbrella. 
• In cases of poor students being unable to afford even that, they could approach the king, who would then step in and provide something. 
• Not providing a poor student a means to supply his Guru's Dakshina was considered the greatest slur on a King's reputation.

Votive Stupa at Takshashila showing the Budhhist influence. Votive Stupas are the Indian Version of Wishing Wells.

EXAMS NO CONSTRAINT! 

• Examinations were treated as superficial, not considered part of the requirements to complete one's studies. 
• The process of teaching was thorough- unless one unit was mastered completely, the student was not allowed to proceed to the next.
•  No convocations were held upon completion, and no written degrees were awarded, since it was believed that knowledge was its own reward. 
• Using knowledge for earning a living or for any selfish end was considered the ultimate Disaster.

PREVIOUS EDUCATION CRITERIA:

• Students arriving at Takshashila usually had completed their primary education at home (until the age of eight), and their secondary education in the Ashrams (between the ages of eight and twelve), and therefore came to Takshashila chiefly to attain Specialization!



A Part of the School

• There was a special academy for the princes, which had on its rolls 101 scholars. Another centre of royal scions was the institute of military science, whose strength was 103 princes and at one time rose to 500.

                                 

MEET THE ALUMNI OF TAKSHASHILA UNIVERSITY!

• Takshashila's famous researchers and teachers include:

1. Panini the great grammarian of Sanskrit, to whom Prof. Noam Chomsky of MIT attributes the origin of linguistics.
2. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya (King-maker, Superb political advisor, and Author of ArthaShastra 300 BCE), deemed by social and economic historian Max Weber as one of the greatest political state-craft books of the ancient world.
3. Charaka the distinguished physician, whose research on the region’s flora and fauna described in his Charaka-Samhita strengthened the development of Ayurveda.
4. Jivaka the great physician of Bimbisara who cured the Buddha, learnt the science of medicine under a far-famed teacher at Takshashila and on his return was appointed court-physician at Magadha.
5. Jotipala, son of the Purohita of the king of Banaras, returned from Takshashila with great proficiency in archery or military science and was later appointed commander-in-chief of Banaras.
6. Prasenajit,the enlightened ruler of Kosala, who is intimately associated with the events of the time of the Buddha.

View from the Takshashila University

• If You want to read more of D.G.Apte's works on Takshashila University please click here

SUMMARY:

• This vast land of Ancient India of roughly 3000 kms was split into 16 major mahajanapadas around the 6th century B.C.E.
• Mahajanapadas is a combination of three words
1. Maha-Great
2. Jana-People
3. Padas-Foothold
•  The Mahajanapadas were divided into two categories as follows:
• Monarchy:
• 11 of theese majanapadas were ruled by kings or monarchs. The kings in these states had the supreme authority.
• 1. Anga (Kolkata and Bangladesh)
  2. Kashi (Varanasi/Benaras)
  3. Kosala, (East Uttar Pradesh)
  4. Chedi, (Central Madhya Pradesh)
  5. Vatsa, (southern Uttar Pradesh)
  6. Matsya, (Eastern Rajasthan and Western Madhya Pradesh)
  7. Shursen, (Indian Punjab)
  8. Ashmak, (Central India-Eastern Maharashtra)
  9. Avanti, (Western and southern Madhya Pradesh)
  10. Gandhar (Peshawar and northern Pakistan Punjab )
  11. Magadha (Bihar and Bengal)

  Republics:

  • The remaining 5 were Republic countries.
  • These republican states had a 'Gana-parishad' or an Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. This Gana-parishad had the supreme authority in the state. 
  • All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad.

  1. Vrijji (North Eastern Uttar Pradesh)
  2. Malla,( Northern West Bengal and Western Assam)
  3. Kuru(Haryana and Delhi)
  4. Panchal (Uttarakhand and Western Uttar Pradesh)
  5. Kamboj (Nothern Baluchistan and North West Frontier Province of Pakistan)
  • Of all these, Avanti,Kosala,Gandhar,Vatsa and Magadha were the biggest and their role was very important all the forth comings.

  
  

  Takshila University:

  • Takshila (Pronounced as Takshashila in Sanskrit) is located in the Rawalpindi District of the Punjab province in Pakistan. 
  • Legend has it that Taksha, an ancient king who ruled a kingdom called Taksha Khanda the modern (Tashkent) founded the city of Takshashila. However in Sanskrit Takshashila, appears to contain the suffix shila ("stone") with the prefix Taksha, referring to Taksha, the son of Bharata and Mandavi, as related in the Ramayana.
  • Takshila is situated about 30-32 km  northwest of Islamabad Capital Territory and Rawalpindi in the Punjab state of Pakistan.
  • The curriculum consisted of some 68 elective courses where more than 10,500 students came and studied under the guidance of more than 2000 teachers.
  • Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. 
  • Students would come to Takshila and take up education in their chosen subject with their teacher directly.
  • There was a special academy for the princes, which had on its rolls 101 scholars. Another centre of royal scions was the institute of military science, whose strength was 103 princes and at one time rose to 500.
  • Knowledge was considered too sacred to be bartered for money, and hence any stipulation that fees ought to be paid was vigorously condemned. 
  • Financial support came from the society at large, as well as from rich merchants and wealthy parents. 
  • Takshashila's famous researchers and teachers include:
  1. Panini the great grammarian of Sanskrit, to whom Prof. Noam Chomsky of MIT attributes the origin of linguistics.
  2. Kautilya, also known as Chanakya (King-maker, Superb political advisor, and Author of ArthaShastra 300 BCE), deemed by social and economic historian Max Weber as one of the greatest political state-craft books of the ancient world.
  3. Charaka the distinguished physician, whose research on the region’s flora and fauna described in his Charaka-Samhita strengthened the development of Ayurveda.
  4. Jivaka the great physician of Bimbisara who cured the Buddha, learnt the science of medicine under a far-famed teacher at Takshashila and on his return was appointed court-physician at Magadha.
  5. Jotipala, son of the Purohita of the king of Banaras, returned from Takshashila with great proficiency in archery or military science and was later appointed commander-in-chief of Banaras.
  6. Prasenajit,the enlightened ruler of Kosala, who is intimately associated with the events of the time of the Buddha.

I wont end the topic here, I won't say how the university was ruined as it has a particular significance in the oncoming chapters. 

I will say that at the end of the 5th Century as this university was a great centre of knowledge till then.

I shall write more on Nalanda University next time and will also write on Alexander's Advances of which I'm sure everyone is very curious to know about.

Till then Knowledge shouldn't be refused to anyone, Knowledge increases with sharing.

ARYANS and the VEDIC SYSTEM

Aryans: Developers of Vedas (Pillars of Hinduism)

• The authoritative Sanskrit Dictionary (450 AD), the famous Amarakosha gives the following definition:

mahakula kulinarya sabhya sajjana sadhavah

• An Arya is one who hails from a noble family, of gentle behavior, good-natured and of righteous conduct.
• And the great epic Ramayana has a singularly eloquent expression describing Lord Rama as:

arya sarva samascaiva sadaiva priyadarsanah

• Arya, who worked for the equality of all and was dear to everyone.

LORD RAM is believed to be the most noble Aryan and people worship him in India with great zeal .
His subjects were supposed to be the happiest on earth and people even today wish to live under his kingship.

• As I had mentioned earlier in the post named-sapt sindhu civilization, it was Aryans who took up the land in the erstwhile Indus valley and it is also presumed the original natives of the Indus valley were actually the Dravidians or we can say, the present day Tamils who are the descendant of Dravidians.
• The Aryans are derived from 'arya'.
• They did come from central Europe and other parts of Western Asia to India.
• Hitler also proclaimed himself as an Aryan and the German  race as an Aryan race, also wearing the swastik on his arm and spreading it as a Nazi symbol when actually its an Aryan/Hindu symbol but it is in the exact opposite alignment.
• Swastik symbolizes the four Yugas (epochs) which form a cycle. They are: Satya Yuga, the Treta Yuga, the Dvapara Yuga, and finally the Kali Yuga 

• In essence, the Aryan civilization has its roots deep in central Asia and they left no stone unturned in propagating all their teachings,way of life, their culture in India.
• This is evident as Sanskrit : The language in which they wrote the Vedas is still in practise in India, whereas we discussed earlier that the writings of Indus Valley Civilization haven't been deciphered whereas the writings from this period is still studied and followed by Hindus in India.

What are Vedas??

• Veda is a Sanskrit word which is derived from 'vid' which means "to know", which is derived from 'ueid', which has an Indo-European root.
• The vedas were composed in the Iron Age, and are supposedly the oldest Hindu scriptures.
• There are 4 types of Vedas and hence, they are called as 'Chaturvedas (meaning 4 Vedas in Sanskrit- the language in which the Vedas were composed):

1. Rig Veda-'Wisdom of the Verses' (composed between 1700 and 1100 BCE)
2. Yajur Veda -'Sacrifices and Mathematical Knowledge '(composed between 1000 and 600 BCE)
3. Sama Veda- 'Music Compositions, "sam" means melody or song' (composed around the time of Rig Veda )
4. Atharva Veda- 'Mathematics and Geometry oriented study coded in the form of shlokas'(composed around the time of Rig Veda)

• The vedas described the way of living life, specific rules for the benefit of the society as it is mentioned in every religion.
• The Vedas is a very complex topic as it deals with the philosophical and the spiritual side of Humans.
• Vedas are also integrated into 'samhitas' (hymns/mantras) and 'srutis' (heard), but we won't go into it as it deals with the thoughts, beliefs and other aspects of Hinduism.

The sacred syllable 'OM' 

• Vedas were of the opinion that this knowledge was heard by them and they themselves din't invent it!
• They believed that the presence of Gods lies in these revealed words.
•  Because they contain the sacred syllables from which Gods and mortals were born, the vedas are thought to have preceded the universe, itself created from the sacred syllable 'OM'.
• Therefore, I would like to just give an overview because it would be a bit too much to understand all of their philosophies.
• Let me also tell you that the basis of this are the scriptures that were found and is not based on the sayings or writing of a single person.

Pancha Bhuta and the Gods:

• The Hindus, even today believe in the power of the sacred 5 elements:

1. Earth (Prithvi)
2. Fire (Agni)
3. Water (Jal)
4. Air (Vaayu)
5. Ether/Space (Aakasha)

• The Indus Valley Civilization worshipped the Mother Goddess, the Bull, The Horned Deity and sacred trees. Such ideas continued with the Aryans, and have continued within present day Hinduism. Some of the more abstract ideas of the Vedas appealed to few, most preferred more earthy forms of worship. 
• The earliest religious ideas of the Aryans were as with most ancient civilizations, nature and animal worship. 
• Whatever they feared or they could not explain they attributed to divine forces, and personified them into male and female gods.
• This is not very different from the early Greek Mythology.
• Indra was the most popular among them during the early Vedic period.
•  Next in importance to Indra was Agni who was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people. 
• Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the natural order. There were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. 
• There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. 
• Prayers were offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards.
• Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings. Elaborate rituals were followed during the worship.
• Marriages and other important religious activities were solemnized in the presence of fire, a practice that still continues in Hinduism today.
• Fire was considered the purest of all the five elements, and was held in high esteem.

All the names of rivers described earlier are Rig Vedic names

Vedic Ideologies: Philosophies of Hindu Religion

• The overall summary as described by Hindu Acharyas and their disciples studying them even today is : (This is just a part of it)
• Life of Humans revolves inside the world called 'SANSAR', which held a human in binds subjecting him to rules, responsibilities and ensured a healthy contribution from him towards the society
• SANSAR was termed as a constant flux from which the man should escape, leave all worldly (SANSARI) pleasures and sacrifice everything to unite with the Supreme Lord.
• This world is a myth and that worldly pleasures are of no value, that sacrifice and spiritual practises like penance is the true road to unite with the Supreme Being.
• According to the Vedas-"A Person can achieve everything by being simple and humble."
• I would like to focus more on the administration and other characteristics of the Aryans' first phase in Indus Valley Civilization.

Vedic System:

• A settled lifestyle brought in its wake more complex forms of government and social patterns. 
• This period saw the evolution of the caste system, and the emergence of kingdoms and republics.
•  The events described in the two great Indian epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, are thought to have occurred around this period. (1000 to 800 BC).

Mathematical Supremacy (Atharvaveda and Yajurveda):

• Geometry is used throughout the Rig Veda. 
• The emphasis was not on proofs but on usage.
• Furthermore, the Rishis (sages) had knowledge of the concept of precision
• The depth of precision was based on the requirements of the task or study being described. For example, descriptions of constructions were limited in precision whereas descriptions of astronomical phenomena were described in greater precision.
• The following verse in the Rig Veda deals with the formation of the universe.

Who was the measurer prama? What was the model pratimâ? What were the building materials for things offered nidânam ãjyam? What is the circumference (of this universe) paridhih? What are the meters or harmonies behind the Universe chandah? What is the triangle (yoke) praugam [which connects this universe to the source of driving force, the engine]?

• All these Sanskrit words (ie: prama) are geometrical terms.
• Chariots are described in great detail in many different verses in the Rig Veda and Yajur Veda.
•  Dr. Kulkarni writes:
• The proficiency in chariot building presupposes a good deal of knowledge of geometry... The fixing of spokes of odd or even numbers require knowledge of dividing the area of the circle into the desired numbers of small parts of equal area, by drawing diameters. This also presupposes the knowledge of dividing a given angle into equal parts.

Chariots have always been an integral part of Indian Traditions.

•  For example, three types of fire altars, garhapatya, ahavaniya and dakshina are mentioned in the Rig Veda , defined in the Shatapatha Brâhmana as being square, circular and semi circular, respectively, and also having the same area. 
• Considering that ritualistic fire altar designs were not changed over a period of time and that the shastras were recited for several millennia before being written down, the rishis must have had a method to calculate the square root of the number two and the value of pi, without which they would not be able to determine whether the three altars had the same area or not.

Error Correction & Detection Codes

• The Rig Veda was recited using a special method of recitation which is akin to modern error correction and detection codes.
• This feature has allowed it to be passed on from generation to generation for many millennia without the introduction of errors 
• The rishis had focused on developing methods of chanting which can detect any errors in chanting of a mantra, such as omitting a syllable or replacing one syllable by another.
• For each mantra, there are several different methods of chanting, each method capable of detecting one type of error.
•  For illustration, consider one half of the famous gayatri mantra of the sage Vishvamitra. The standard method of recitation is called Samhita patha (given below).

Samhita Patha

tatsaviturvarenyam bhargo devasya dhimahi
Separate all compound words into their constituents and number the words:

tat savituh varenyam bhargah devasya dhimahi
1      2          3               4       5       6
In the kramapatha chant, use a text obtained by combining two neighboring words according the rules of sandhi, resulting in six words.

Krama Patha

1+2                     2+3                       3+4                     4+5                 5+6          
tatsavituh saviturvarenyam varenyambhargah bhargodevasya devasyadhimahi

             6+6

dhimahiti dhimahi.

• To understand its error detecting capability, divide the chant into syllables so that the syllable ends with an vowel a, i, u etc. 
• Both the third syllable and sixth syllables are same namely vi. 
• Suppose we commit an error and chant the third syllable as va. 
• According to the krama chanting, the sixth syllable should be same as the third syllable. He would pronounce it as vi, since we are assuming he will make only one error. 
• Then he notices that an error has taken place since va is different from vi. An error has obviously occurred, but he does not know which is correct, va or vi? 
• The various forms of chanting are called as vikratis and there are eight of them.

        

First usage of Pi

• In the Rigveda, a formula to find the area of a circle is mentioned showing that the Rishis knew of pi, approximating it to be equal to 22/7!!!
•  It was used in the formula for the area of a circle
• Area of a circle = pi*(AB/2)^2 where AB is the diameter of a circle.
• In the Yajurveda also, 1x3=3, 3x5=15, 5x7=35, etc is seen.

Big Numbers

• In Yajurveda, numbers starting from four and with a difference of four forming an arithmetic series is discussed.
• The Yajurveda also mentions the counting of numbers upto 10^18, the highest being named parardha.
• In the Taittiriya Upanishad, there is an anuvaka (section)
• The anuvaka provides a precise calculation of a series of multiplications by 100 to give number 10010 units of human bliss that can be had when one attains Brahman. 

Concept of Infinity

• The concept of infinity was also known during Vedic times. 
• They were aware of the basic mathematical properties of infinity and had several words for the concept-chief being ananta, purnam, aditi, and asamkhyata.
•  Asamkhyata is mentioned in the Yajur Veda, and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad as describing the number of mysteries of Indra as Ananta.
• The Atharva Veda states that:
• Infinity can come out of infinity only and infinity is left over from infinity after operations on it
•  These two statements are elaborated in the opening lines of the Isha Upanishad.

pûrnamadah pûrnamidam pûrnât pûrnamudachyate
pûrnâsya pûrnamadaya pûrnamevâvasishyate

From infinity is born infinity.
When infinity is taken out of infinity,
only infinity is left over.

Atharva Veda

• The concept of one, arithmetic progression, and arithmetric series are also seen in the Vedas as well.
•  In Atharva Veda, the fact that 1x1 and 1/1 = 1 is stated.

Concept of Shunya (Zero)

• The concept of Shunya, or zero void, was originally conceived as the symbol of Brahman, expressing the sum of all distinct forms.
•  The symbol of zero and the decimal system of notation is described in the Atharva veda.
•  It describes how the number increases by 10 by writing zero in front of it.
•  While there is no explicit mention of zero, it must have been common knowledge based on how it is used.

• In fact, the concept of shunya was not just mathematical or scientific, but is deeply rooted in all branches of thought - especially metaphysics and cosmology. 
• Shunya is the transition point between oposites, it symbolizes the real balance between divergent tendencies.
•  Most ancient mathematicians defined zero as the sum of two equal and opposite quantities.
•  Zero produces all figures, but is itself not limited to a certain value. Zero is the primary or final reservoir of all single numbers. 
• The symbol of zero and the decimal system of notation is described in the Atharva veda.

Courtesy: Hindupedia.com

Administration:

• Vedic Aryans divided their Land/Kingdom in three units;

1. Gram (village) 
2. Vis (sub domain) and 
3. Jana (kingdom). 

• A Gram was the smallest unit of this political system and a collection of Grama make a Vis or subdivision. 
• In the same way a number of Vis build a kingdom. 
• The leader of a Gram was called gramani and
•  the Vish leader was called as Vishpati. 
• A kingdom or Rashtra was ruled by a Rajan or king. 
• The king was selected by the consent and approval of people from a royal family. 
• The major duty of a king was to protect the people. 
• The major tribal kingdoms in the period(1500-1000) were Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus, Purus.
• The Soldiers on foot and on chariots, armed with bow and arrow were common.
•  The king occupied spies and messengers and collected taxes from the people which he had to redistribute among the inhabitants. 

Social Life (Rig-Vedic and post Rig-Vedic period):

• Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. 
• There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
• Women could even attend the popular assemblies.
•  There was no child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
• However, the post-rig vedic period saw an altogether shift in the society making it patriarchal.
• In the family, the power of the father increased during the Later Vedic period. 
• There was no improvement in the status of women. 
• They were considered inferior and subordinate to men. Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. 
• Child marriages had become common. 
• According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery.
• However, the women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.
• People started praying for the abundance of sons.

Economy:

•  Agriculture grew more prominent with time as the community gradually began to settle down in post-Rigvedic times. 
• Their wealth was estimated in terms of their cattle.Cattle were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rig Vedic hymns. 
• With the knowledge and use of iron they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation.
•  Carpentry was another important profession and the availability of wood from the forests cleared made the profession profitable.
•  Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs.
•  Workers in metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron. Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen fabrics were made.
• Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments. 
• The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use. 
• Trade was another important economic activity and rivers served as important means of transport.
•  The economy was based on bartering with cattle and other valuables such as salt or metals. 
• In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used as media of exchange in large transactions.

Lothal - The Port and Business Hub of ancient India

Lothal - The Port and Business Hub of ancient India(cities-RED 4)

Major Population-(Early Natives, Aryans)

Maximum Population-(7500-11000 approx)

• Such is the story of India........the roots go deep, very deep. Once upon a time,having the most flourishing and prospering trade relations with Mesopotamia(present day Iraq), Egypt, Persia(Iran), some say even African countries.....
• Today people who live in Gujarat are termed as born businessmen, noted industrialists who were born and bred in gujarat include Jamshedji Tata(founder of India's first private industry, Tata group, born in Navsari, Gujarat), Dhirubhai Ambani(Reliance industries,born in Idhar, Gujarat)
• It is often quoted "You can take a Gujarati (person who hails from the state of gujarat) out of Gujarat but never business out of a Gujarati"

LETS COME BACK TO LOTHAL

• Lothal is situated near the village of Saragwala in the Dholka Taluka of Ahmedabad district. It is six kilometres (south-east) of the Lothal-Bhurkhi railway station on the Ahmedabad-Bhavnagar railway line.
• The city covers an overall area 950 ft x 750 ft approx during its peak.
• Lothal is supposed to have the earliest dock in the world history. This indicates that India especially Sindh province of pre-indepent India was always indulged in business.

• Lothal is supposed to be the last town on the saraswati river's tributary lavanavati or bhogavo which comes from the north. Lothal was excavated by the Archaeological Survey of India in the year 1954!
• Lothal is a combination of two words Loth and (s)thal which means 'mound of dead'......surprised?!
• Isn't this the SAME as the name of mohenjo daro in sindhi?
• Yes lothal and Mohenjo Daro are the two cities of the same termed 'Hariyupan/Harappan' civilization.
• Again population of Lothal was prominently Hindu.
• But graves of mesopotamian and mediterranian people have been found in lothal-again a ritual which is not experienced in hinduism today i.e. burial.
• It is believed that the aryans came to this city in late 2400s B.C.E and by the time they came the city was destroyed due to floods apparently.
• Similarity again with the said stories of Hariyupa and Mohenjo Daro?
• Yes the aryans came in late 2400-2300 B.C.E and built over the city which was in its prime until it got destroyed in 1800s B.C.E.

• But the city was already far ahead in trade and ceramic expertize.
• The beads and gems of Lothal were in great demand in the west.
• They seem to have worshipped the fire God and also another sea goddess which people according to tradition also worship today.
• A coastal route existed linking sites such as Lothal and Dholavira to Sutkagan Dor on the Makran coast.

Artists perception of ancient Lothal

The present day lothal

                                                    For a quick video of lothal click here

Town Planning and Structure

solid waste Filter

• Lothal engineers engaged themselves to protect the area from consistent floods.
•  The city was divided into a fortress (citadel) and the the city.
• The citadel dominated the city which is a bit similar to hariyupa and supposedly the rulers of the city lived in this fortress unlike mohenjo daro which did not have any such distinguishing structure.
• The fortress had paved baths, underground and surface drains too.

• The city was divided into two parts

1. Market place where the traders used to gather to sell various goods
2. The residential area- The town was divided into blocks of approx 2 metre-high (approx 6 ft) platforms of kiln baked and dried bricks, each consisting of 20–30 houses of thick mud and brick walls.

                                                            The Dockyard!

Lothal during the early days of excavation

• Welcome! You are looking at the supposedly oldest port of the world! 
• The dockyard was located away from the main river to avoid deposition of silt. 
• Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering. 
• This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.
•  It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks. 
• This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal strength and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river tributaries or creeks.
• The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft).
•  Another assessment is that the basin could have served as an irrigation tank, for the estimated original dimensions of the "dock" are not large enough, by modern standards, to house ships and conduct much traffic.
• This is absolutely brilliant! Such technology and perfection 4000 years ago!

present day lothal

• The original height of the embankments was (13.98 ft). (Now it is 10.98 feet).
•  To counter the thrust of water, offsets were provided on the outer wall faces.
•  When the river changed its course in 2000 BCE, a smaller inlet, 7 metres (23 ft) wide was made in the longer arm, connected to the river by a 2 kilometre channel.
• At high tide a flow of 2.1–2.4 metres (6.9–7.9 ft) of water would have allowed ships to enter.
•  The dock also possessed a lock-gate system—a wooden door could be lowered at the mouth of the outlet to retain a minimum column of water in the basin so as to ensure flotation at low tides.
•  Brick-paved passages between blocks served as vents, and a direct ramp led to the dock to facilitate loading. 
• The warehouse was located close to the fortress, to allow tight supervision by ruling authorities.
•  Despite elaborate precautions, the major floods that brought the city's decline destroyed all but twelve blocks, which became the makeshift storehouse.

Business!

• All of you must be wondering about what the whole trade was about that made lothal stand out from the other cities!
• Lothal is again one of those towns of hariyupan civilization which made artifacts of pure copper. These artifacts still exist and have stood the test of time!
• Lothal was the contributor of maximum artifacts of Hariyupan civilization.

copper seal which is also used in indian navy

• There exists a bead factory, which performs a very important economic function, possesses a central courtyard and eleven rooms, a store and a guardhouse even today. 
• There is a cinder dump (a site for dumping industrial wastage), as well as a double-chambered circular kiln, with stoke-holes for fuel supply. 
• The mud plaster of the floors and walls are vitrified owing to intense heat during work. 
• The residues of raw materials such as reed, cow dung, sawdust are found, giving archaeologists hints of how the kiln was operated.

the marketplace

•  A large mud-brick building faces the factory, and its significance is noted by its plan.
•  Four large rooms and a hall, with an overall measurement of 17.1 × 12.8 metres (56 × 42 ft). The hall has a large doorway and a raised floor in the southern corner of the building.
• This gives us an idea of how advanced the people were in planning and had also built fully operating factories!
• There are multiple two-roomed shops and workplaces of coppersmiths and blacksmiths in the marketplace.

Artifacts 

• A unique seal found here is from Bahrain—circular, with image of a dragon flanked by jumping gazelles.
• The discovery of etched carnelian beads and non-etched barrel beads in Kish and Ur (modern Iraq), Jalalabad (Afghanistan) and Susa (Iran) attest to the popularity of the Indus bead industry across West Arabia.

unicorn seal-2500s B.C.E

• The Lothal excavation yielded 213 seals, third largest among all Indus Civilization sites.
•  Seal-cutters preferred short-horned bulls, mountain goats, tigers and composite animals like the elephant-bull for engravings.

SOME INTERESTING FACTS:

• Lothal offers two new types of potter work, a bowl with or without handle, and a small jar with design not found in other Indus Valley cultures.
• Lothal artists introduced a new form of realistic painting.
• Paintings depict animals in their natural surroundings. On one large vessel, the artist depicts birds with fish in their beaks, resting in a tree, while a fox-like animal stands below. This scene bears resemblance to the story of The Fox and the Crow in the Panchatantra.
• On a miniature jar, the story of the thirsty crow and deer is depicted – of how the deer could not drink from the narrow-mouth of the jar, while the crow succeeded by dropping stones in the jar. The features of the animals are clear and graceful.
• A complete set of terra-cotta gamesmen, has been found in Lothal—animal figures, pyramids with ivory handles and castle-like objects (similar to the chess set of Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt)

Defence tools

• Lothal copper is unusually pure, lacking the arsenic typically used by coppersmiths across the rest of the Indus valley. 
• The city imported ingots from probable sources in the Arabian peninsula. 

a chisel head

• Workers mixed tin with copper for the manufacture of arrowheads, fishhooks, chisels, bangles, rings, drills and spearheads, although weapon manufacturing was minor.
• They also employed advanced metallurgy in following the cire perdue technique of casting, and used more than one-piece moulds for casting birds and animals.
•  They also invented new tools such as curved saws and twisted drills unknown to other civilisations at the time.

Another Surprising Fact (Source Wikipedia)!

• A thick ring-like shell object found with four slits each in two margins served as a compass to measure angles on plane surfaces or in the horizon in multiples of 40 degrees, up to 360 degrees. 
• Such shell instruments were probably invented to measure 8–12 whole sections of the horizon and sky, explaining the slits on the lower and upper margins. 
• Archaeologists consider this as evidence that the Lothal experts had achieved something 2,000 years before the Greeks: an 8–12 fold division of horizon and sky, as well as an instrument for measuring angles and perhaps the position of stars, and for navigation.
• Lothal contributes one of three measurement scales that are integrated and linear (others found in Harappa and Mohenjodaro). 
• An ivory scale from Lothal has the smallest-known decimal divisions in Indus civilisation. The distance between graduation lines being 1.70 mm.
•  The sum total of ten graduations from Lothal is approximate to the angula in the Arthashastra (Chanakya's political treatise).
• The Lothal craftsmen took care to ensure durability and accuracy of stone weights by blunting edges before polishing.

DECLINE OF LOTHAL:

• Basic reason for the decline of lothal is supposedly great floods which destroyed the city around 1800 B.C.E and caused a great migration of people from Lothal towards eastern parts of Gujarat along the rivers Narmada and also towards the north-Rajasthan.
• This generation, archaeologists say was very under developed and illiterate for the most part.

SALIENT FEATURES:

• Lothal is supposedly the world's first dock
• Lothal is one of the Indus Valley Civilization's most flourishing cities.
• Along with the usual perfectly coordinated drainage systems and sewer management usually seen in a hariyupan city, Lothal also had a desgnated marketplace in the city where traders used to gather to sell their goods.
• The city also had a fortress at the centre which was the governing body.
• The people used to trade with countries like Bahrain,Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia,Africa and other west arabian countries.
• The dock of lothal was a very indigenously designed dock with perfection and accuracy but constant floods caused the planning body to change the entry points.
• Lothal people ahd developed a compass which was used for navigation according to the postions of stars in the sky as well as with the help of the horizon.It had graduation in its scale upto a precision of 1.70 mm per one graduation!
• Lothal people were experts in crafting and there were special places for blacksmiths and coppersmiths in the city and they were excellent traders.
• Pure Copper artifacs were in great demand in other countries as this quality of copper was available only in Lothal and not even in other hariyupan cities.......also other attacking tools which were maufactured only in Lothal like drills and saws which were carved with precision
• There was a bead factory in Lothal which are still made in the same way as it was 4000 years ago
• The various beads had great demand in west arabian countries.
• Many seals were found indicating the importance of animals and also of the fact that they worshipped the fire god and sea goddesses which is still practised in Gujarat today.

Hariyupa (Harappa)

RED 3: INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION CONTD... PART 1: CITIES

Hariyupa originally the name of this city seems to have the name from HARI which is a name of Lord Shiva in Hindu Religion.
Another such city in India is Haridwar in Uttar Pradesh state.

(Harappa) Hariyupa
Major Population-(Early Natives, Aryans)
Maximum Population-(15000-23,500 approx)

Lost city of Harappa

• Harappa is an archaeological site in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 24 km (15 mi) west of Sahiwal.
• The site at Harappa was damaged in 1857 when the engineers were constructing the Lahore-Multan railway, used bricks from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, and found an extremely large number of artifacts.
• (Psst! Presently the city lies in ruins due to the negligence of Pakistan Govt. and could have been a site proposed for an amusement park if Mr. Ahmed Dani hadn't intervened! )
•  The bricks discovered were made of red sand, clay, stones and were baked at very high temperature.  
• Artifacts and clues discovered at Mohenjo-Daro have allowed archaeologists to reconstruct this civilization. 
• The similarities in plan and construction between Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa indicate that they were part of a unified government with extreme organization.
• Most of the city layout and plan is similar to Mohenjo Daro. Refer RED 2!
•  Both cities were constructed of the same type and shape of bricks.
•  The two cities may have existed simultaneously and their sizes suggest that they served as capitals of their provinces. 

The best thing which I personally like about the Indus Civilization is:

• Evidence suggests that this civilization did not have social classes.
•  Remains of palaces or temples in the cities have not been found.

The layout of the city which shows no signs of a distinct palace

•  It is possible that the Harappans were a peaceful civilization. The cities did contain fortifications and the people used copper and bronze knives, spears, and arrowheads.
• The Harappan civilization was mainly urban and mercantile.
•  Inhabitants of the Indus valley traded with Mesopotamia, southern India, Afghanistan, and Persia for gold, silver, copper, and turquoise.
• The Mesopotamian model of irrigated agriculture was used to take advantage of the fertile grounds along the Indus River. 
• Earthlinks were built to control the river's annual flooding.
• Most of the artwork from this civilization was small and used as personal possessions. 

clay vessel along with design

• They grew cotton and also knew the art of fabric weaving!
• The first objects unearthed from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were small stone seals.  
• These seals were inscribed with elegant portrayals of real and imagined animals and were marked with the Indus script writing. 
• The seals could have been used as currency as alleged by many scholars.

seals depicting various animals

seal showing relation of harappans and animals

God of animals-Pashupati found at Harappa

•  The seals suggest a symbolic or religious intent. 
• Stone sculptures carved in limestone or alabaster depict a male figure who may have represented a god.
•  Pottery figures were shaped into humans and animals. 
• Very few bronze figures have been recovered.

• Harappans developed the art of writing!
• Clay tablets unearthed at Harappa, which were carbon dated 3300-3200 B.C., contain trident shaped and plant like markings, and they are suggested as a possible earliest writings anywhere in the world, as opined by Dr. Richard Meadow of Harvard University and Director, Harappa Archeological Research Project

symbols used in INDUS SCRIPT

• We can observe Indus Script in the various seals unearthed.This script has not been completely decoded yet!

GRADUAL DECLINE:

• The Harappan civilization experienced its height around 2500 BC and began to decline about 1900 BC. 
• There are many reasons for its decline.
•  One theory suggests that the Aryan people migrated into this area. Aryan religious texts and human remains in Mohenjo-Daro suggest that the Aryans may have violently entered the area, killing its inhabitants and burning the cities.
• This civilization may have begun to decline before the Aryans arrived. The inhabitants of the Indus valley dispersed before the Aryans slowly entered the area as a nomadic people and were then able to take over this area since most of the inhabitants had previously left. 
• Another cause of the dispersal of the Harappans could have been a result of agricultural problems. Topsoil erosion, depletion of nutrients from the soil, or a change in the course of the Indus River may have forced these people to leave their towns and move northeastward in search of more fertile land.

Here's Where it gets interesting again!

• Harappa was a cosmopolitan city. Many of the deceased had grown up outside Harappa—the first direct evidence that "individuals were indeed migrating to the city," 
•  Migrants may have come to Harappa for MARRIAGE!
•  Many of the outsiders, surprisingly, are men buried near women native to Harappa. 
• The findings are preliminary, but they suggest men moved in with their brides, even though in South Asia women traditionally move to their husband's homes. would point to a "system where women were powerful."

Burial at Harappa

• Experts have long thought that the Indus region was indeed vastly different from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in one respect: the level of violence.
•  Based on the lack of evidence for mass destruction of any Indus cities, the Indus is often described as a "peaceful civilization." 
• But another group of Harappan skeletons tells a darker story! This was covered by The National Geographic channel!
• Bones from about 1900 to 1700 B.C make it clear that at least some Harappan residents were subjected to savage violence. 
• The skull of a child between four and six years old was cracked and crushed by blows from a club-like weapon. 
• An adult woman was beaten so badly—with extreme force, according to researchers—that her skull caved in.
•  A middle-aged man had a broken nose as well as damage to his forehead inflicted by a sharp-edged, heavy weapon.

This skull of an adult male shows traces of a broken nose and a blunt-force injury.

Photograph courtesy Gwen Robbins Schug

• Of the 18 skulls examined from this time period, nearly half showed serious injuries from violence.
• Is this is a coincidence that during the decline of this civilization violence was running riot?
• Could it be that Aryans,the founder of Vedas and peaceful living could subject to such cruel violence???
• The mystery remains unsolved.

 SALIENT FEATURES

• The similarities in plan and construction between Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa indicate that they were part of a unified government with extreme organization.
• Both cities were constructed of the same type and shape of bricks.
• The Harappan civilization was mainly urban and mercantile.
•  Inhabitants of the Indus valley traded with Mesopotamia, southern India, Afghanistan, and Persia for gold, silver, copper, and turquoise.
• They grew cotton and also knew the art of fabric weaving!
• The first objects unearthed from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were small stone seals.  
• These seals were inscribed with elegant portrayals of real and imagined animals and were marked with the Indus script writing. 
• Women are supposedly the more powerful sex in harappan civilization.
• The first forms of writing were probably developed by the Harappans!
• The seals could have been used as currency also.
• The Aryans could have attacked these cities causing their decline in 1900 B.C.

Stay tuned i will be explaining more about the two gujarat cities lothal and dholavira which were important trade cities and this fabled state is till date assumed the manufacturer of businessmen and businesswomen!